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War of the Rebellion -

  • 1 War of the Rebellion

    ист
    Название Гражданской войны [ Civil War] (1861-65), распространенное среди северян. Выражало их отношение к войне как к мятежу южных штатов.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > War of the Rebellion

  • 2 War of the Rebellion

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > War of the Rebellion

  • 3 War Between the States

    Название Гражданской войны [ Civil War] (1861-65); чаще употребляется на Юге [ South].

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > War Between the States

  • 4 rebellion

    1. n восстание; мятеж, бунт

    the Great Rebellion — «Великий мятеж»

    War of the Rebellion — «Война против мятежников»

    in rebellion — восставший; взбунтовавшийся; мятежный

    2. n открытое неповиновение, неподчинение; сопротивление, противодействие; протест

    rebellion against parents — неповиновение родителям; бунт против родительской власти

    3. n разг. возмущение
    4. n шотл. юр. неповиновение суду; невыполнение распоряжения суда
    Синонимический ряд:
    revolution (noun) contumacy; defiance; dissension; insolence; insubordination; insurgence; insurrection; mutiny; overthrow; resistance; revolt; revolution; sedition; uprising
    Антонимический ряд:
    conciliation; endurance; resignation; submission

    English-Russian base dictionary > rebellion

  • 5 rebellion

    [rıʹbeljən] n
    1. восстание; мятеж, бунт

    the Great Rebellion - ист. «Великий мятеж» (неодобр. название Английской буржуазной революции XVII в., принятое в буржуазной историографии)

    War of the Rebellion - амер. «Война против мятежников» (название, употреблявшееся северянами для гражданской войны 1861-1865 гг.)

    in rebellion - восставший; взбунтовавшийся; мятежный

    district in open rebellion - район, охваченный восстанием

    to rise in rebellion - восстать, поднять восстание /мятеж/

    2. 1) открытое неповиновение, неподчинение; сопротивление, противодействие (чему-л.); протест (против чего-л.)

    rebellion against parents - неповиновение родителям; бунт против родительской власти

    2) разг. возмущение
    3. шотл. юр. неповиновение суду; невыполнение распоряжения суда

    НБАРС > rebellion

  • 6 War of Secession

    ист
    Одно из названий Гражданской войны [ Civil War] (1861-65). Чаще употреблялось на Севере.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > War of Secession

  • 7 rebellion

    rɪˈbeljən сущ.
    1) восстание;
    бунт, мятеж to crush, put down, quash, quell a rebellion ≈ подавлять восстание to foment, stir up a rebellion ≈ поднимать восстание open rebellion ≈ открытый бунт the Great Rebellion ≈ гражданская война в Англии (1642-60 гг.) rebellion breaks out ≈ восстание начинается Syn: insurrection, revolt, uprising
    2) сопротивление, отпор, противодействие;
    возмущение in open rebellion ≈ открыто проявляя сопротивление Syn: resistance, opposition восстание;
    мятеж, бунт - armed * вооруженное восстание - the Great R. (историческое) "Великий мятеж" (неодобр. название Английской буржуазной революции XYII в., принятое в буржуазной историографии) - War of the R. (американизм) "Война против мятежников" (название, употреблявшееся северянами для гражданской войны 1861-1865 гг.) - in * восставший;
    взбунтовавшийся;
    мятежный - district in open * район, охваченный восстанием - to rise in * восстать, поднять восстание /мятеж/ открытое неповиновение, неподчинение;
    сопротивление, противодействие (чему-л.) ;
    протест( против чего-л.) - * against parents неповиновение родителям;
    бунт против родительской власти( разговорное) возмущение (шотландское) (юридическое) неповиновение суду;
    невыполнение распоряжения суда ~ восстание;
    бунт;
    the Great Rebellion гражданская война в Англии (1642-60 гг.) rebellion возмущение ~ восстание, мятеж, бунт, неповиновение ~ восстание;
    бунт;
    the Great Rebellion гражданская война в Англии (1642-60 гг.) ~ сопротивление

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > rebellion

  • 8 rebellion

    n
    1. повстання, заколот, бунт
    2. відверта непокора, опір, протидія, протест
    - Great R. іст. Великий заколот (назва громадянської війни в Англії у XVII ст.)
    - War of the R. іст. війна проти заколотників (назва громадянської війни 1861–1865 рр., яка використовувалась представниками північних штатів США)

    English-Ukrainian diplomatic dictionary > rebellion

  • 9 War of Restoration

    (1641-68)
       After the revolution of 1 December 1640, when King João IV of Braganza overthrew Spanish rule and declared Portugal independent, Portugal and Spain fought a war that decided the fate of Portugal. The War of Restoration was fought between Spanish and Portuguese armies, assisted by foreign mercenaries and by Portugal's oldest ally, England. Portugal's 1640 Revolution and the war against Spain to maintain its reclaimed independence were supported as well by France during the 1610-59 period. After 1659, France gave no more assistance to Lisbon and cut off diplomatic relations. Portugal's great friend during this war, which was fought largely near the Luso-Spanish frontier or in Portugal in the flat Alentejo province, with no natural barriers to Spanish invasion, was thus England. This crucial alliance was reestablished in the Anglo-Portuguese treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661. Various truce and peace treaties, too, were signed with Holland, which was willing to side with Portugal, or at least be neutral, against Spain. Catalonia's prolonged rebellion against Spanish (Castilian) rule during Portugal's struggle played an important role in weakening Spain's effort to recover Portugal. At Ameixial, on 8 June 1663, a decisive battle in the war occurred, resulting in the defeat of the Spanish army and its withdrawal from Portugal. The Luso-Spanish Peace Treaty (1668) concluded the War.
        See also Peace treaty of 1668.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > War of Restoration

  • 10 Reb

    ист разг
    Прозвище солдата Армии Конфедерации [ Confederate Army] или просто южанина в период Гражданской войны [ Civil War]. Выражало отношение северян к войне как к мятежу южных штатов [War of the Rebellion]. (сокр от REBel).
    тж Johnny Reb, Rebel

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Reb

  • 11 beginning

    noun
    Anfang, der; Beginn, der

    at or in the beginning — am Anfang

    at the beginning of February/the month — Anfang Februar/des Monats

    from beginning to end — von Anfang bis Ende; von vorn bis hinten

    from the [very] beginning — [ganz] von Anfang an

    have its beginnings in something — seine Anfänge od. seinen Ursprung in etwas (Dat.) haben

    [this is] the beginning of the end — [das ist] der Anfang vom Ende

    * * *
    noun der Anfang
    * * *
    be·gin·ning
    [bɪˈgɪnɪŋ]
    I. n
    1. (starting point) Anfang m; (in time) Beginn m
    at [or in] the \beginning am Anfang, zu Beginn
    the \beginning of the end der Anfang vom Ende
    from \beginning to end (place) von vorn bis hinten; (temporal) von Anfang bis Ende, von der ersten bis zur letzten Minute
    at the \beginning of the month am Monatsanfang
    we will meet at the \beginning of the month wir treffen uns Anfang des Monats
    promising [or ( form) auspicious] \beginning viel versprechender Anfang
    2. (origin)
    ▪ \beginnings pl Anfänge pl, Ursprung m
    the \beginnings of civilization die Anfänge [o der Ursprung] der Zivilisation
    to rise from humble \beginnings sich akk aus kleinen Verhältnissen hocharbeiten
    3. (start)
    ▪ \beginnings pl erste Anzeichen
    I've got the \beginnings of a headache ich glaube, ich bekomme Kopfschmerzen
    4.
    ▶ in the \beginning was the Word REL ( prov) am Anfang war das Wort
    II. adj attr, inv Anfangs-
    \beginning course Anfängerkurs m
    \beginning stage Anfangsstadium nt
    \beginning student Studienanfänger(in) m(f)
    * * *
    [bI'gInɪŋ]
    n
    1) (= act of starting) Anfang m
    2) (= place, of book etc) Anfang m; (temporal also) Beginn m; (of river) Ursprung m

    at the beginning — anfänglich, zuerst

    the beginning of time/the world —

    from the beginning of the week/poem — seit Anfang or Beginn der Woche/vom Anfang des Gedichtes an

    read the paragraph from the beginning — lesen Sie den Paragrafen von (ganz) vorne

    from beginning to end — von vorn bis hinten; (temporal) von Anfang bis Ende

    to begin at the beginning —

    the beginning of negotiations — der Beginn der Verhandlungen, der Verhandlungsbeginn

    3) (= origin) Anfang m; (of custom, movement) Entstehen nt no pl

    from humble beginnings — aus einfachen Verhältnissen

    Nazism had its beginnings in Germany —

    * * *
    1. Anfang m, Beginn m:
    at ( oder in) the beginning am oder im oder zu Anfang, anfangs;
    at the beginning of anfangs (gen);
    from the (very) beginning (ganz) von Anfang an;
    from beginning to end von Anfang bis Ende;
    it’s the beginning of the end das ist der Anfang vom Ende; → academic.ru/5835/battle">battle Bes Redew
    2. Ursprung m
    3. pl Anfänge pl (einer Wissenschaft etc)
    * * *
    noun
    Anfang, der; Beginn, der

    at or in the beginning — am Anfang

    at the beginning of February/the month — Anfang Februar/des Monats

    from beginning to end — von Anfang bis Ende; von vorn bis hinten

    from the [very] beginning — [ganz] von Anfang an

    have its beginnings in something — seine Anfänge od. seinen Ursprung in etwas (Dat.) haben

    [this is] the beginning of the end — [das ist] der Anfang vom Ende

    * * *
    n.
    Anbruch -¨e m.
    Anfang -ë m.
    Antritt -e m.
    Beginn -e m.
    Entstehung f.

    English-german dictionary > beginning

  • 12 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 13 crush

    1. transitive verb
    1) (compress with violence) quetschen; auspressen [Trauben, Obst]; (kill, destroy) zerquetschen; zermalmen
    2) (reduce to powder) zerstampfen; zermahlen; zerstoßen [Gewürze, Tabletten]
    3) (fig.): (subdue, overwhelm) niederwerfen, niederschlagen [Aufstand]; vernichten [Feind]; zunichte machen [Hoffnungen]
    4) (crumple, crease) zerknittern [Kleid, Stoff]; zerdrücken, verbeulen [Hut]
    2. noun
    1) (crowded mass) Gedränge, das
    2) (coll.): (infatuation) Schwärmerei, die

    have a crush on somebody — in jemanden verknallt sein (ugs.)

    * * *
    1. verb
    1) (to squash by squeezing together etc: The car was crushed between the two trucks.) zerquetschen
    2) (to crease: That material crushes easily.) zerknittern
    3) (to defeat: He crushed the rebellion.) zerschmettern
    4) (to push, press etc together: We (were) all crushed into the tiny room.) drängen
    2. noun
    (squeezing or crowding together: There's always a crush in the supermarket on Saturdays.) das Gedränge
    - academic.ru/17582/crushing">crushing
    * * *
    [krʌʃ]
    I. vt
    ▪ to \crush sth etw zusammendrücken; (causing serious damage) etw zerquetschen; MED [sich akk] etw quetschen
    to \crush sb to death jdn zerquetschen
    2. (mash)
    ▪ to \crush sth etw zerdrücken
    \crush the almonds into a fine powder die Mandeln fein mahlen
    to \crush an apple einen Apfel fein zerkleinern
    to \crush a clove of garlic eine Knoblauchzehe zerdrücken
    to \crush grapes Trauben zerstampfen
    3. (break into pieces)
    to \crush ice Eis zerstoßen
    4. (shock)
    ▪ to \crush sb jdn [stark] erschüttern
    he was completely \crushed by the news die Nachricht hat ihn furchtbar getroffen
    5. (defeat)
    ▪ to \crush sb/sth jdn/etw vernichten [o unschädlich machen]
    the army was determined to \crush all resistance die Armee war entschlossen, jeglichen Widerstand zu zerschlagen
    to \crush hopes Hoffnungen zunichtemachen
    to \crush an opponent einen Gegner [vernichtend] schlagen
    to \crush a rebellion/riot eine Rebellion/einen Aufstand niederschlagen
    II. n
    1. no pl (crowd) Gewühl nt, Gedränge nt
    to get a \crush on sb sich akk in jdn verknallen fam
    to have a \crush on sb in jdn verknallt [o verschossen] sein fam
    3. no pl (drink) Fruchtsaft m mit zerstoßenem Eis
    orange \crush Orangensaft m mit zerstoßenem Eis
    * * *
    [krʌʃ]
    1. n
    1) (= crowd) Gedrängel nt

    it'll be a bit of a crush — es wird ein bisschen eng werden

    2) (inf) (= infatuation) Schwärmerei f; (= object of infatuation) Schwarm m

    to have a crush on sb — für jdn schwärmen, in jdn verschossen sein (inf)

    3) (= drink) Saftgetränk nt
    2. vt
    1) (= squeeze, press tightly) quetschen; (= damage) soft fruit etc zerdrücken, zerquetschen; finger, toes etc quetschen; (rock, car etc) sb zerquetschen; (= kill) zu Tode quetschen; (= grind, break up) spices, garlic (zer)stoßen; ice stoßen; ore, stone zerkleinern, zerstampfen; scrap metal, garbage zusammenpressen; (= crease) clothes, paper zerknittern, zerdrücken; (= screw up) paper zerknüllen

    I was crushed between two enormous men in the plane —

    2) (fig) enemy, hopes, self-confidence, sb vernichten; revolution, opposition niederschlagen; (= oppress) people, peasants unterdrücken

    she crushed him with one glance — sie sah ihn vernichtend an, sie warf ihm einen vernichtenden Blick zu

    3. vi
    1) (crowd) (sich) drängen

    they crushed into the car — sie quetschten or drängten sich in das Auto

    2) (clothes, fabric) knittern, knautschen (inf)
    * * *
    crush [krʌʃ]
    A s
    1. (Zer)Quetschen n:
    crush syndrome MED Quetschsyndrom n
    2. (zermalmender) Druck
    3. Gedränge n, Gewühl n
    4. umg Party etc, auf der es eng zugeht
    5. besonders Br Getränk aus ausgepressten Früchten:
    6. umg
    a) Schwarm m
    b) Schwärmerei f:
    have a crush on sb in jemanden verknallt oder verliebt sein
    B v/t
    1. zerquetschen, -malmen, -drücken:
    he was crushed to death er wurde zerquetscht oder erdrückt
    2. zerdrücken, -knittern
    3. quetschen, heftig drücken
    4. TECH zerkleinern, -mahlen, -stoßen, schroten, Erz etc brechen:
    crushed coke Brechkoks m;
    crushed stone Schotter m
    5. (hinein)quetschen, (-)pressen ( beide:
    into in akk)
    6. auspressen, -drücken, -quetschen ( alle:
    from aus):
    crush the juice from a lemon eine Zitrone auspressen
    7. fig
    a) nieder-, zerschmettern, überwältigen, vernichten:
    crush sb’s spirit jemandem den Schwung nehmen; → crushing 3
    b) einen Aufstand etc niederwerfen, unterdrücken
    C v/i
    1. zerquetscht oder zerdrückt werden
    2. zerbrechen
    3. sich drängen ( into in akk)
    4. (zer)knittern
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) (compress with violence) quetschen; auspressen [Trauben, Obst]; (kill, destroy) zerquetschen; zermalmen
    2) (reduce to powder) zerstampfen; zermahlen; zerstoßen [Gewürze, Tabletten]
    3) (fig.): (subdue, overwhelm) niederwerfen, niederschlagen [Aufstand]; vernichten [Feind]; zunichte machen [Hoffnungen]
    4) (crumple, crease) zerknittern [Kleid, Stoff]; zerdrücken, verbeulen [Hut]
    2. noun
    1) (crowded mass) Gedränge, das
    2) (coll.): (infatuation) Schwärmerei, die
    * * *
    v.
    ausdrücken v.
    erdrücken v.
    vernichten v.
    zerdrücken v.
    zerquetschen v.
    zerstoßen v.

    English-german dictionary > crush

  • 14 Maria II, queen

    (1811-1853)
       Born Maria da Glória, daughter of Pedro IV of Portugal (Pedro I of Brazil) and his first wife, Archduchess Leopoldina of Austria, in Rio de Janeiro, the future queen was named regent at age seven, on the death of King João VI (1826). By an agreement, her father Pedro abdicated the throne of Portugal on her behalf with the understanding that she would marry her uncle Dom Miguel, who in turn was pledged to accept a constitutional charter written by Pedro himself. Backed by the absolutist party, including his reactionary mother Queen Carlota Joaquina, Dom Miguel returned from his Austrian exile in 1828 and proceeded to scrap the 1826 charter of Pedro and rule as absolutist king of Portugal, placing the nine-year-old Maria da Glória in the political wilderness.
       Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (who had been Pedro IV of Portugal before he abdicated in Maria's favor) responded by deciding to fight for his daughter's cause and for the restoration of the 1826 charter. Maria's constitutional monarchy, throne, and cause were at the center of the War of the Brothers, a tragic civil war from 1831 to 1834. With foreign assistance from Great Britain, Pedro's army and fleet prevailed over the Miguelite forces by 1834. By the Convention of Évora-Monte, signed by generals of Miguel and Pedro, Miguel surrendered unconditionally, peace was assured, and Miguel went into exile.
       At age 15, Maria da Glória was proclaimed queen of Portugal, but her personal life was tragic and her reign a stormy one. Within months of the victory of her constitutionalist cause, her chief advocate and counselor, her father Pedro, died of tuberculosis. Her all too brief reign was consumed in childbirth (she died bearing her 11th child in 1853 at age 34) and in ruling Portugal during one of the modern era's most disturbed phases. During her time on the throne, there were frequent military insurrections and interventions in politics, various revolutions, the siege of Oporto, the Patuleia revolt and civil war, the Maria da Fonte uprising, rebellion of leading military commanders (marshals), and economic troubles. Maria was a talented monarch, and helped raise and educate her oldest son Pedro, who succeeded her as King Pedro V, one of Portugal's most remarkable rulers of recent centuries. Late in her reign, the constitutional monarchy system settled down, enjoyed greater stability, and began the so-called " Regeneration" era of economic development and progress.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Maria II, queen

  • 15 Pennsylvania

    Официальное название - Содружество Пенсильвания [Commonwealth of Pennsylvania]. Штат на северо-востоке США, в группе Среднеатлантических штатов [ Middle Atlantic States]. На севере граничит со штатом Нью-Йорк [ New York], на северо-западе имеет выход к озеру Эри [ Erie, Lake], на востоке граничит со штатом Нью-Джерси [ New Jersey], на юге - со штатами Делавэр [ Delaware] и Мэриленд [ Maryland], на юге и западе с Западной Вирджинией [ West Virginia], на западе - с Огайо [ Ohio]. Южная граница проходит по т.н. линии Мэйсона-Диксона [ Mason-Dixon Line]. Площадь 117,3 тыс. кв. км. Население 12,2 млн. человек (2000) (шестое место среди штатов). Столица Гаррисберг [ Harrisburg]. Крупнейшие города: Филадельфия [ Philadelphia], Питсбург [ Pittsburgh], Эри [ Erie], Аллентаун [ Allentown]. В рельефе присутствуют практически все черты, характерные для востока страны. Большая часть Пенсильвании расположена в районе Аппалачских гор [ Appalachian Mountains] (высшая точка гора Маунт-Дэвис [ Davis, Mount], 980 м), состоящих из нескольких хребтов, разделенных продольными долинами. На западе они переходят в Аппалачское плато [ Appalachian Plateau], на крайнем юго-востоке штата расположена узкая полоса Приатлантической низменности [Atlantic Coastal Plain] вдоль р. Делавэр [ Delaware River]. Юго-восточную часть штата занимает холмистое плато Пидмонт [ Piedmont Plateau], западнее - Голубые горы [ Blue Mountains] и Линия водопадов [ Fall Line]. Реки многоводные, преимущественно быстрые, порожистые, особенно на плато Пидмонт. Наиболее крупные из них судоходны: Саскуэханна [ Susquehanna River], Огайо [ Ohio River] с ее истоками Аллегейни [ Allegheny River] и Мононгахила [ Monongahela River]. Много озер. Более 60 процентов территории покрыто лесами. Штат обладает крупными запасами угля, является крупнейшим производителем антрацита. На северо-западе есть запасы нефти и природного газа. На основной части территории штата континентальный влажный климат. На юго-востоке долгое, жаркое лето, мягкая зима; на Аппалачском плато более долгая зима и короткое лето. До появления поселенцев на территории будущего штата жили племена делаваров [ Delaware], шауни [ Shawnee] и саскуэханна [Susquehanna], племена из Ирокезской лиги [ Iroquois League] и др. В XVII в. о своих правах на эти земли заявляли Голландия, Швеция, Англия. В 1614 голландцы исследовали долину р. Делавэр. В 1643 шведы создали первые постоянные поселения на о. Тиникум [Tinicum Island] и Новый Готтенбург [New Gottenburg] в окрестностях современного г. Честера [ Chester]. В 1655 Новая Швеция [ New Sweden] была завоевана голландцами во главе с П. Стайвесантом [ Stuyvesant, Peter] и вошла в состав Новых Нидерландов [ New Netherland], но в 1664 англичане, в свою очередь, взяли под контроль эту голландскую колонию. В 1681 квакер [ Quakers] У. Пенн [ Penn, William, Jr.] получил в дар от английского короля Карла II территорию, известную под названием "Пенсильванское провидение" [Providence of Pennsylvania]. Колония была названа Пенсильванией в честь отца У. Пенна, адмирала Уильяма Пенна. Первое английское поселение Филадельфия было основано здесь в 1682, вскоре она стала столицей колонии и одним из крупнейших городов в Новом Свете. Пенн-младший задумал создать образцовое общество, основанное на демократических принципах, и назвал его "Священный эксперимент" [ Holy Experiment]. По "Великому закону Пенсильвании" ["The Great Law of Pennsylvania"] - конституции, было создано представительное собрание, провозглашались право каждого на жизнь и свободу и полная веротерпимость; смертная казнь предусматривалась только за убийство и предательство, был введен суд присяжных, участие в выборах ограничивалось незначительным имущественным цензом. Пенн и его последователи заключили соглашения о дружбе с индейцами, что обеспечило достаточно длительный (около 70 лет) период стабильных отношений между поселенцами и местными племенами. В Пенсильванию, кроме квакеров, стали переселяться французские протестанты, шотландцы, немцы [ Pennsylvania Dutch]. К 1750 из-за интенсивного заселения земель начались конфликты с индейцами, со временем приведшие к их вытеснению или уничтожению. Поток английских переселенцев и торговцев в западную Пенсильванию хлынул в середине XVIII в. Французы построили цепь фортов от оз. Эри до устья р. Огайо. В 1754-63 Пенсильвания стала ареной войн с французами и индейцами [ French and Indian wars]. После взятия французского форта Дюкен [ Fort Duquesne] (1758) в 1759-61 на месте современного г. Питсбурга под руководством генерала Дж. Форбса [ Forbes, John] был построен форт Питт [ Fort Pitt], ставший важным форпостом повстанцев в период Войны за независимость [ Revolutionary War]. В 1763 произошло крупное восстание индейцев под предводительством Понтиака [ Pontiac's Conspiracy]. Пенсильвания сыграла существенную роль в борьбе за независимость. Пенсильванцы участвовали во многих битвах в других колониях, в том числе в осаде Бостона (1775), создали собственный флот. На территории будущего штата произошли битвы за форт Миффлин [Fort Mifflin, Battle of], Джермантаун [ Germantown, Battle of] и сражение на ручье Брэндивайн [ Brandywine, Battle of the]. В 1777-78 Дж. Вашингтон [ Washington, George] зимовал со своей армией в Вэлли-Фордж [ Valley Forge] в 40 км западнее Филадельфии. Сам город был центром политической активности в колониях. В июле 1774 здесь проходили выборы делегатов на первый Континентальный конгресс [First Continental Congress; Continental Congresses], который также был проведен в Филадельфии. В 1776 на втором Континентальном конгрессе [Second Continental Congress] была подписана Декларация независимости [ Declaration of Independence]. В 1787 делегаты Конституционного конвента [ Constitutional Convention] в Филадельфии составили проект Конституции США [ Constitution, U.S.]. 12 декабря 1787 Пенсильвания стала вторым по счету штатом США. В 1790-1800 Филадельфия была столицей молодого государства. В 1794 и 1799 штат стал местом первых фермерских восстаний [ Whiskey Rebellion; Fries Rebellion]. Современные границы Пенсильвании возникли в 1792, когда в ее состав была включена территория на северо-западе, известная как "Треугольник Эри" ["Erie Triangle"], что расширило ее выход к побережью этого озера. В 1799 столицей штата стал г. Ланкастер [ Lancaster], а в 1812 она была перенесена в Гаррисберг. Важную роль Пенсильвания сыграла в Гражданской войне [ Civil War], что определялось многими факторами, в том числе аболиционистскими [ abolition] взглядами квакеров, крупными материальными и людскими ресурсами штата и его географическим положением. Основные дороги с Юга [ South] проходили через Гаррисберг, Филадельфию и Питсбург, поэтому, чтобы получить контроль над ними, армия конфедератов Северной Вирджинии [ Army of Northern Virginia] вторглась в Пенсильванию в 1863. Геттисбергское сражение [ Gettysburg, Battle of] (1863) на территории штата стало одним из самых значительных и кровопролитных за время войны. Около трети участников сражения со стороны Армии Союза [ Union Army] были пенсильванцами. В 1873 была принята ныне действующая конституция штата [ state constitution]. Верховный суд штата - один из старейших в стране (создан в 1722). Штат, жители которого поддерживали демократов в 1800-60, после войны стал одним из оплотов Республиканской партии [ Republican Party]. В 1859 у г. Титусвилла [Titusville] начала действовать одна из первых в мире нефтяных скважин. После войны в штате стала интенсивно развиваться промышленность, особенно сталелитейная. В 1867 был впервые использован бессемеровский процесс производства стали. К 1870 крупнейшим индустриальным центром стал г. Питсбург, где производилось до двух третей всей стали США. К концу XIX в. сложилась крупнейшая сталелитейная империя Э. Карнеги [ Carnegie, Andrew], которая после продажи Дж. П. Моргану [ Morgan, John Pierpont] (1901) стала основой корпорации "Юнайтед Стейтс стил" [ United States Steel Corp.]. В штате создана многоотраслевая экономика, в которой важнейшее место принадлежит промышленному производству, сконцентрированному прежде всего в Филадельфии и Питсбурге. По числу занятых в промышленности штат уступает только Калифорнии и Нью-Йорку. Ведущие отрасли - сталелитейная, черная металлургия, транспортное машиностроение, производство металлоизделий, промышленного оборудования, электронных компонентов, инструментов, приборов, химикатов, стройматериалов, изделий из пластмасс, продуктов питания, одежды; развиты полиграфия и энергетика, в том числе ядерная. Географическое положение и высокоразвитая сеть дорог делают штат "воротами" Среднего Запада [ Midwest] и Юга [ South]. Высоко развито сельское хозяйство: Пенсильвания лидирует в производстве молока и молочных продуктов, бройлеров, яиц, яблок, шампиньонов. Основные посевные культуры - кукуруза, сеяные травы, соя, пшеница. Один из наиболее доходных секторов экономики - туризм. В целом, бурный рост экономического развития прерывался только во время разрушительного Джонстаунского наводнения [ Johnstown flood] в 1899 и в период Великой депрессии [ Great Depression] 1930-х. В годы второй мировой войны штат играл важную роль в военном производстве. Ныне Пенсильвания продолжает оставаться лидером в области сталелитейной промышленности и добычи угля. В конце XIX - начале XX в. в политической жизни штата господствовали республиканские боссы [ bossism]. Конец этой эпохи наступил с кончиной Б. Пенроуза [ Penrose, Boies] в 1921. В последние годы ни одна из основных партий не имеет постоянного превосходства на выборах различного уровня. По мере промышленного роста росло и рабочее движение, создавались профсоюзы. Штат стал местом крупных забастовок железнодорожников - в Питсбурге (1877), сталелитейщиков [ Homestead Steel Strike] (1892), горняков [ Anthracite Strike of 1902] (1902). В Пенсильвании берет начало АФТ-КПП [ AFL-CIO].

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Pennsylvania

  • 16 Generation of 1870

       A generation of Portuguese writers and intellectuals and a postregeneration phase of the country's intellectual history in the last third of the 19th century. Many of them graduates of Coimbra University, these writers, whose work challenged conventional wisdom of their day, included J. Oliveira Martins, economist and social scientist; Eça de Queirós, novelist; Antero de Quental, poet; Ramalho Ortigão, editor and essayist; Teófilo Braga, literary historian; and the geographer and diplomat abroad, Jaime Batalha Reis. Coming of political age at the time of the Franco-Prussian War, the French Commune, and the French Third Republic (1870-71), these Portuguese intellectuals believed that economically weak Portugal had a polity and society in the grip of a pervasive decadence and inertia. They called for reform and renewal.
       Critical of romanticism, they were realists and neorealists and espoused the ideas of Karl Marx, Pierre Proudhon, and Auguste Comte. They called for revolution through the establishment of republicanism and socialism, and they were convinced that Portugal's backwardness and poverty were due primarily to the ancient influences of a weakened monarchy and the Catholic Church. This group of like-minded but also distinctive thinkers had an important impact on Portuguese letters and elite culture, but only a minor effect on contemporary politics and government.
       Like so many other movements in modern Portugal, the Generation of 1870's initiatives began as essentially a protest by university students of Coimbra, who confronted the status quo and sought to change their world by means of change and innovation in action and ideas. In certain respects, Portugal's Generation of 1870 resembled neighboring Spain's Generation of 1898, which began its "rebellion" in ideas following a disastrous foreign war (the Spanish-American War, 1898).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Generation of 1870

  • 17 trouble

    1.
    ['trʌbl]noun
    1) Ärger, der; Schwierigkeiten Pl.

    have trouble with somebody/something — mit jemandem/etwas Ärger haben

    put one's troubles behind one — seine Probleme vergessen

    be out of trouble — aus den Schwierigkeiten heraus sein

    keep out of trouble — nicht [wieder] in Schwierigkeiten kommen

    in trouble — in Schwierigkeiten

    be in serious or real or a lot of trouble [over something] — [wegen einer Sache] in ernsten od. großen Schwierigkeiten sein

    get a girl into trouble — (coll.) einem Mädchen ein Kind machen (ugs.)

    get into trouble [over something] — [wegen einer Sache] in Schwierigkeiten geraten

    get into trouble with the law — mit dem Gesetz in Konflikt geraten

    there'll be trouble [if...] — es wird Ärger geben[, wenn...]

    what's or what seems to be the trouble? — was ist denn?; was ist los? (ugs.); (doctor's question to patient) wo fehlt's denn?

    you are asking for trouble — (coll.) du machst dir nur selber Schwierigkeiten

    that's asking for trouble — (coll.) das muss ja Ärger geben

    make or cause trouble — (cause disturbance) Ärger machen ( about wegen); (cause disagreement) Zwietracht säen

    2) (faulty operation) Probleme

    engine/clutch/brake trouble — Probleme mit dem Motor/der Kupplung/der Bremse

    3) (disease)

    suffer from or have heart/liver trouble — herz-/leberkrank sein

    4) (cause of vexation etc.) Problem, das

    half the trouble — (fig.) das größte Problem

    your trouble is that... — dein Fehler ist, dass...

    5) (inconvenience) Mühe, die

    take the trouble to do something, go to the trouble of doing something — sich (Dat.) die Mühe machen, etwas zu tun

    go to or take a lot of/some trouble — sich (Dat.) sehr viel/viel Mühe geben

    of course I'll help you - [it's] no trouble at all — natürlich helfe ich dir - das macht keine Umstände od. das ist nicht der Rede wert

    6) (source of inconvenience)

    be a trouble [to somebody] — jemandem zur Last fallen

    he won't be any trouble — er wird [Ihnen] keine Schwierigkeiten machen

    7) in sing. or pl. (unrest) Unruhen
    2. transitive verb
    1) (agitate) beunruhigen

    don't let it trouble you — mach dir deswegen keine Sorgen

    2) (inconvenience) stören

    [I'm] sorry to trouble you — bitte entschuldigen Sie die Störung

    3. intransitive verb
    1) (be disturbed) sich (Dat.) Sorgen machen ( over um)

    don't trouble about it — mach dir deswegen keine Gedanken

    2) (make an effort) sich bemühen

    don't trouble to explain/to get up — du brauchst mir gar nichts zu erklären/bitte bleiben Sie sitzen

    * * *
    1. noun
    1) ((something which causes) worry, difficulty, work, anxiety etc: He never talks about his troubles; We've had a lot of trouble with our children; I had a lot of trouble finding the book you wanted.) die Mühe
    2) (disturbances; rebellion, fighting etc: It occurred during the time of the troubles in Cyprus.) die Unruhen(pl.)
    3) (illness or weakness (in a particular part of the body): He has heart trouble.) das Leiden
    2. verb
    1) (to cause worry, anger or sadness to: She was troubled by the news of her sister's illness.) beunruhigen
    2) (used as part of a very polite and formal request: May I trouble you to close the window?) bemühen
    3) (to make any effort: He didn't even trouble to tell me what had happened.) sich bemühen
    •
    - academic.ru/76797/troubled">troubled
    - troublesome
    - troublemaker
    * * *
    trou·ble
    [ˈtrʌbl̩]
    I. n
    1. no pl (difficulties) Schwierigkeiten pl; (annoyance) Ärger m
    to be in serious \trouble in ernsten Schwierigkeiten sein
    to head [or be heading] for \trouble auf dem besten Weg sein, Schwierigkeiten zu bekommen
    to ask [or be asking] for \trouble Ärger herausfordern
    to be in/get into \trouble in Schwierigkeiten sein/geraten
    ▪ to be in \trouble with sb mit jdm Schwierigkeiten [o Ärger] haben
    to have a lot of \trouble [to do sth] große Schwierigkeiten haben[, etw zu tun]
    to get into \trouble with sb mit jdm in Schwierigkeiten geraten
    to land sb in \trouble [with sb] jdn [bei jdm] in Schwierigkeiten bringen
    to keep sb out of \trouble jdn vor Schwierigkeiten bewahren
    to spell \trouble ( fam) Ärger verheißen geh, nichts Gutes bedeuten
    to stay out of \trouble sauber bleiben hum fam
    to store up \trouble [for the future] sich dat Schwierigkeiten einhandeln
    2. (problem) Problem nt; (cause of worry) Sorge f
    that's the least of my \troubles das ist meine geringste Sorge
    the only \trouble is that we... der einzige Haken [dabei] ist, dass wir...
    I don't want to be a \trouble to anybody ich möchte niemandem zur Last fallen
    to tell sb one's \troubles jdm seine Sorgen erzählen
    3. no pl (inconvenience) Umstände pl, Mühe f
    it's no \trouble at all das macht gar keine Umstände
    he's been no \trouble at all er war ganz lieb
    it's more \trouble than it's worth to take it back to the shop es lohnt sich nicht, es ins Geschäft zurückzubringen
    to go to the \trouble [of doing sth], to take the \trouble [to do sth] sich dat die Mühe machen, [etw zu tun]
    to go to some/a lot of \trouble for sth/sb sich dat für etw/jdn große Mühe geben
    to put sb to the \trouble of doing sth jdn bemühen, etw zu tun geh
    I don't want to put you to any \trouble ich möchte dir keine Umstände machen
    to take \trouble with sth/sb sich dat mit etw/jdm Mühe geben
    to be [not] worth the \trouble [of doing sth] [nicht] der Mühe wert sein, [etw zu tun]
    4. no pl (physical ailment) Leiden nt
    my eyes have been giving me some \trouble recently meine Augen haben mir in letzter Zeit zu schaffen gemacht
    stomach \trouble Magenbeschwerden pl
    5. no pl (malfunction) Störung f
    engine \trouble Motorschaden m
    6. (strife) Unruhe f
    at the first sign of \trouble beim ersten [o geringsten] Anzeichen von Unruhe
    to look [or go looking] for \trouble Ärger [o Streit] suchen
    to stir up \trouble Unruhe stiften
    to be in \trouble in Schwierigkeiten sein
    to get a girl into \trouble ein Mädchen ins Unglück stürzen geh
    II. vt
    ▪ to \trouble sb for sth jdn um etw akk bemühen geh
    ▪ to \trouble sb to do sth jdn bemühen etw zu tun geh
    2. (make an effort)
    ▪ to \trouble oneself about sth sich akk um etw akk kümmern
    ▪ to \trouble sb jdn beunruhigen; (grieve) jdn bekümmern
    to be [deeply] \troubled by sth wegen einer S. gen tief besorgt [o beunruhigt] sein
    4. usu passive (cause problems)
    ▪ to be \troubled by sth durch etw akk in Bedrängnis geraten
    5. (cause pain)
    ▪ to \trouble sb jdn plagen
    III. vi sich akk bemühen
    ▪ to \trouble to do sth sich dat die Mühe machen, etw zu tun
    * * *
    ['trʌbl]
    1. n
    1) Schwierigkeiten pl; (bothersome) Ärger m

    you'll be in trouble for this — da bekommen Sie Ärger or Schwierigkeiten

    to get into trouble — in Schwierigkeiten geraten; (with authority) Schwierigkeiten or Ärger bekommen (with mit)

    to get out of trouble — aus den Schwierigkeiten herauskommen

    to keep or stay out of trouble — nicht in Schwierigkeiten kommen, sauber bleiben

    to make trouble for sb/oneself (with authority) — jdn/sich selbst in Schwierigkeiten bringen

    that's/you're asking for trouble —

    to look for trouble, to go around looking for trouble — sich (dat) Ärger einhandeln

    there'll be trouble if he finds out — wenn er das erfährt, gibts Ärger or Trouble (inf)

    here comes trouble (inf) — jetzt geht es los! (inf), jetzt gibt es Ärger or Trouble! (inf)

    what's the trouble? — was ist los?; (to sick person) wo fehlts?

    the trouble is that... —

    family/money troubles — Familien-/Geldsorgen pl

    2) (= bother, effort) Mühe f

    it's no trouble (at all)! — das mache ich doch gern

    thank you – (it was) no trouble — vielen Dank – (das ist) gern geschehen

    it's no trouble to do it properly — man kann es genauso gut ordentlich machen

    she's/it's more trouble than she's/it's worth — sie/es macht mehr Ärger or Umstände als sie/es wert ist

    to go to the trouble (of doing sth), to take the trouble (to do sth) — sich (dat) die Mühe machen(, etw zu tun)

    to go to/to take a lot of trouble (over or with sth) — sich (dat) (mit etw) viel Mühe geben

    you have gone to a lot of trouble over the food — Sie haben sich (dat) solche Umstände mit dem Essen gemacht

    he went to enormous trouble — er hat alles nur Erdenkliche getan

    to put sb to the trouble of doing sth — jdn bemühen, etw zu tun

    3)

    (= nuisance) to be a trouble (to sb) — (jdm) Mühe machen; (dependent person also) (jdm) zur Last fallen

    4) (MED: illness) Leiden nt; (fig) Schaden m

    heart/back trouble — Herz-/Rückenleiden nt

    5) (= unrest, upheaval) Unruhe f

    there's trouble at the factory/in Iran — in der Fabrik/im Iran herrscht Unruhe

    he caused/made trouble between them — er hat Unruhe zwischen ihnen gestiftet

    See:
    2. vt
    1) (= worry) beunruhigen; (= disturb, grieve) bekümmern

    to be troubled by sth — wegen etw besorgt or beunruhigt/bekümmert sein

    2) (= bother) bemühen, belästigen

    I'm sorry to trouble you, but could you tell me if... — entschuldigen Sie die Störung, aber könnten Sie mir sagen, ob...

    will it trouble you if I smoke? — stört es Sie, wenn ich rauche?

    I'll trouble you to remember who you're speaking to! (iro) — würden Sie bitte daran denken, mit wem Sie sprechen!

    3)

    (= take the trouble) to trouble to do sth —

    if you had troubled to ask, you might have found out the truth —

    oh, don't trouble to apologize! (iro) — bemüh dich nicht, dich zu entschuldigen

    3. vi
    sich bemühen
    * * *
    trouble [ˈtrʌbl]
    A v/t
    1. jemanden beunruhigen, stören, belästigen
    2. jemanden bemühen, bitten ( beide:
    for um):
    may I trouble you for the salt?;
    can I trouble you to close the window? machen Sie doch bitte das Fenster zu
    3. jemandem Mühe machen, jemandem Umstände oder Unannehmlichkeiten bereiten, jemanden behelligen (about, with mit):
    don’t trouble yourself bemühen Sie sich nicht!
    4. quälen, plagen:
    troubled by injury besonders SPORT verletzungsgeplagt;
    be troubled with gout von der Gicht geplagt sein
    5. jemandem Kummer oder Sorge oder Verdruss bereiten oder machen, jemanden beunruhigen:
    she is troubled about sie macht sich Sorgen wegen;
    don’t let it trouble you machen Sie sich (deswegen) keine Sorgen oder Gedanken!
    6. Wasser etc aufwühlen, trüben
    B v/i
    1. sich beunruhigen, sich aufregen ( beide:
    about über akk):
    I should not trouble if …
    a) ich wäre beruhigt, wenn …,
    b) es wäre mir gleichgültig, wenn …
    2. sich die Mühe machen, sich bemühen ( beide:
    to do zu tun), sich Umstände machen:
    don’t trouble bemühen Sie sich nicht!;
    don’t trouble to write du brauchst nicht zu schreiben;
    why should I trouble to explain warum sollte ich mir (auch) die Mühe machen, das zu erklären
    C s
    1. a) Mühe f, Plage f, Anstrengung f, Last f, Belästigung f:
    give sb trouble jemandem Mühe verursachen;
    go to a lot of trouble sich besondere Mühe machen oder geben;
    put sb to trouble jemandem Umstände bereiten;
    omelet(te) is no trouble (to prepare) Omelett macht gar nicht viel Arbeit oder Mühe;
    (it is) no trouble (at all) (es ist) nicht der Rede wert;
    save o.s. the trouble of doing sth sich die Mühe (er)sparen, etwas zu tun;
    you could have saved yourself the trouble of this das hättest du dir ersparen können;
    spare no trouble keine Mühe scheuen;
    take (the) trouble sich (die) Mühe machen;
    take trouble over sich Mühe geben mit
    b) weitS. Trouble m umg, Unannehmlichkeiten pl, Schwierigkeiten pl, Scherereien pl, Ärger m ( alle:
    with mit der Polizei etc):
    ask ( oder look) for trouble unbedingt Ärger haben wollen;
    be in trouble in Schwierigkeiten sein;
    be in trouble with the police Ärger mit der Polizei haben;
    his girlfriend is in trouble seine Freundin ist in Schwierigkeiten (schwanger);
    get into trouble in Schwierigkeiten geraten, Schwierigkeiten oder Ärger bekommen;
    get sb into trouble, make trouble for sb jemanden in Schwierigkeiten bringen;
    he’s trouble umg mit ihm wirds Ärger geben; → head B 1 b
    2. Schwierigkeit f, Problem n, (das) Dumme oder Schlimme (dabei):
    make trouble Schwierigkeiten machen;
    the trouble is der Haken oder das Unangenehme ist ( that dass);
    what’s the trouble? wo(ran) fehlts?, was ist los?;
    have troubles with one’s health gesundheitliche Schwierigkeiten oder Probleme haben;
    have trouble doing sth Schwierigkeiten haben, etwas zu tun;
    3. MED (Herz- etc) Leiden n, (-)Beschwerden pl:
    heart trouble auch Herzgeschichte f umg
    4. a) POL Unruhe(n) f(pl), Wirren pl
    b) allg Affäre f, Konflikt m
    5. TECH Störung f, Defekt m, Fehler m
    * * *
    1.
    ['trʌbl]noun
    1) Ärger, der; Schwierigkeiten Pl.

    have trouble with somebody/something — mit jemandem/etwas Ärger haben

    keep out of trouble — nicht [wieder] in Schwierigkeiten kommen

    be in serious or real or a lot of trouble [over something] — [wegen einer Sache] in ernsten od. großen Schwierigkeiten sein

    get a girl into trouble — (coll.) einem Mädchen ein Kind machen (ugs.)

    get into trouble [over something] — [wegen einer Sache] in Schwierigkeiten geraten

    there'll be trouble [if...] — es wird Ärger geben[, wenn...]

    what's or what seems to be the trouble? — was ist denn?; was ist los? (ugs.); (doctor's question to patient) wo fehlt's denn?

    you are asking for trouble — (coll.) du machst dir nur selber Schwierigkeiten

    that's asking for trouble — (coll.) das muss ja Ärger geben

    make or cause trouble — (cause disturbance) Ärger machen ( about wegen); (cause disagreement) Zwietracht säen

    2) (faulty operation) Probleme

    engine/clutch/brake trouble — Probleme mit dem Motor/der Kupplung/der Bremse

    suffer from or have heart/liver trouble — herz-/leberkrank sein

    4) (cause of vexation etc.) Problem, das

    half the trouble — (fig.) das größte Problem

    your trouble is that... — dein Fehler ist, dass...

    5) (inconvenience) Mühe, die

    take the trouble to do something, go to the trouble of doing something — sich (Dat.) die Mühe machen, etwas zu tun

    go to or take a lot of/some trouble — sich (Dat.) sehr viel/viel Mühe geben

    of course I'll help you - [it's] no trouble at all — natürlich helfe ich dir - das macht keine Umstände od. das ist nicht der Rede wert

    be a trouble [to somebody] — jemandem zur Last fallen

    he won't be any trouble — er wird [Ihnen] keine Schwierigkeiten machen

    7) in sing. or pl. (unrest) Unruhen
    2. transitive verb
    1) (agitate) beunruhigen
    2) (inconvenience) stören

    [I'm] sorry to trouble you — bitte entschuldigen Sie die Störung

    3. intransitive verb
    1) (be disturbed) sich (Dat.) Sorgen machen ( over um)
    2) (make an effort) sich bemühen

    don't trouble to explain/to get up — du brauchst mir gar nichts zu erklären/bitte bleiben Sie sitzen

    * * *
    v.
    beunruhigen v.
    stören v. n.
    Mühe -n f.
    Plage -n f.
    Problem -e n.
    Schwierigkeit f.
    Sorge -n f.
    Störung -en f.
    Unruhe -n f.
    Ärger nur sing. m.

    English-german dictionary > trouble

  • 18 crush

    [krʌʃ] vt
    1) ( compress)
    to \crush sth etw zusammendrücken;
    ( causing serious damage) etw zerquetschen; med [sich akk] etw quetschen;
    to \crush sb to death jdn zerquetschen
    2) ( mash)
    to \crush sth etw zerdrücken;
    \crush the almonds into a fine powder die Mandeln fein mahlen;
    to \crush an apple einen Apfel fein zerkleinern;
    to \crush a clove of garlic eine Knoblauchzehe zerdrücken;
    to \crush grapes Trauben zerstampfen
    to \crush ice Eis zerstoßen
    4) ( shock)
    to \crush sb jdn [stark] erschüttern;
    he was completely \crushed by the news die Nachricht hat ihn furchtbar getroffen
    5) ( defeat)
    to \crush sb/ sth jdn/etw vernichten [o unschädlich machen];
    the army was determined to \crush all resistance die Armee war entschlossen, jeglichen Widerstand zu zerschlagen;
    to \crush hopes Hoffnungen zunichte machen;
    to \crush an opponent einen Gegner [vernichtend] schlagen;
    to \crush a rebellion/ riot eine Rebellion/einen Aufstand niederschlagen n
    1) no pl ( crowd) Gewühl nt, Gedränge nt
    to get a \crush on sb sich akk in jdn verknallen ( fam)
    to have a \crush on sb in jdn verknallt [o verschossen] sein ( fam)
    3) no pl ( drink) Fruchtsaft m mit zerstoßenem Eis;
    orange \crush Orangensaft m mit zerstoßenem Eis

    English-German students dictionary > crush

  • 19 rise

    raɪz
    1. сущ.
    1) а) повышение, возвышение, подъем a rise in the road ≈ участок подъема на дороге б) возвышенность, холм в) вершина( горы, холма и т.д.) Syn: hilltop
    2) а) подъем, восхождение Syn: ascent б) восход, подъем ( солнца, луны)
    3) а) перен. поднятие;
    увеличение, рост, прирост;
    приобретение лучшего положения( общественного) б) брит. прибавка( к жалованью, окладу), повышение заработной платы
    4) вспышка гнева He got a rise out of her. ≈ Он подвергся вспышке гнева с ее стороны.
    5) а) начало, исход, происхождение б) исток( какого-л. водоема) The river had its rise in the mountains. ≈ Река брала свое начало в горах. ∙ Syn: beginning, origin
    6) клев
    7) горн.;
    геол. восстающая выработка;
    восстание( пласта)
    8) тех.;
    строит. стрела( арки, провеса, подъема) ;
    вынос, провес ( провода)
    9) лес. сбег( ствола, бревна) ∙ to take/get a rise out of smb. ≈ раздразнить кого-л.;
    вывести кого-л. из себя
    2. гл.
    1) а) подниматься;
    вставать на ноги б) перен. просыпаться, вставать с кровати
    2) а) морально возвышаться (над кем-л./чем-л.) ;
    быть выше( чего-л.) The children have been taught to rise above selfish considerations. ≈ Детей научили быть выше эгоистичных побуждений. rise above smth. б) приобретать вес, влияние to rise in smb.'s opinion/estimation ≈ вырасти в чьих-л. глазах to rise in the world ≈ преуспевать
    3) а) в(о) сходить, вставать, подниматься, взбираться Smoke could be seen rising from the chimney. ≈ Видно, как из камина поднимается дым. Syn: ascend б) перен. увеличиваться в объеме, возрастать Fear rose up in their hearts as the enemy came near. ≈ Их сердца сжались от страха, когда они увидели, что враг подошел близко. в) спец. подниматься, подходить( о тесте)
    4) поднимать восстание, восставать to rise in rebellion ≈ поднять мятеж, бунт
    5) а) воскресать, оживать;
    возрождаться, возвращаться к жизни б) рел. воскресать (из мертвых)
    6) оказывать теплый прием, одобрять( что-л.) the audience rose a new performance ≈ публика с восторгом приняла новую пьесу Syn: applaud
    7) брит. закрываться, прекращать работу( о съезде, сессии и т. п.) Syn: adjourn
    8) а) происходить, случаться The greatest leader of the nation rose from humble origins. ≈ Самый великий лидер нации происходил из самых низов общества. Syn: happen б) брать начало, начинаться (in, from) Syn: originate
    9) иметь в качестве результата (что-л.), получить в качестве результа (что-л.)
    10) быть в состоянии справиться;
    мобилизовать силы, усилия( на что-л.) The company has risen above its early problems, and is now doing well. ≈ Компания справилась со своими проблемами и сейчас процветает. ∙ Syn: climb his gorge/stomach rises ≈ он чувствует отвращение;
    ему претит rise to the bait rise to the fly rise to it rise in applause небольшая возвышенность, холм;
    подъем (местности) - * in a road подъем дороги - the house stands on a * дом стоит на холме /на возвышенности/ высота, степень подъема повышение увеличение - the * and fall of the voice повышение и понижение голоса - * of temperature повышение температуры - * of prices повышение цен - to be on the * повышаться;
    улучшаться( о делах и т. п.) ;
    быть на подъеме;
    идти в гору( разговорное) прибавка (к жалованью) - a * of a pound a week прибавка в размере одного фунта в неделю - to ask for a * просить прибавки продвижение, приобретение веса ( в обществе) ;
    улучшение( положения) - the * and fall of ancient Rome расцвет и упадок Древнего Рима восход (солнца, луны) выход (рыбы) на поверхность клев - to fish all day and not have a * удить весь день и не иметь ни поклевки возникновение, начало;
    происхождение - to take its * брать начало, начинаться - at the * of industrialism на заре индустриализации - to give * (to) причинять, вызывать, быть источником;
    давать повод;
    иметь результатом - the rumour gave * to a lot of unnecessary worry эти слухи причинили много ненужных огорчений давать начало( реке) исток реки - the river takes /has/ its * in the mountains истоки этой реки находятся в горах воскресение из мертвых, возвращение к жизни подъем ступеньки( лестницы) (морское) прибыль прилива - the * and fall of the tide приливы и отливы - the * of the tide is 30 feet высота прилива 30 футов (геология) восстание (пласта) (горное) восстающая выработка( геология) выход на поверхность( техническое) стрела (арки) ;
    провес (провода) (лесохозяйственное) сбег (древесины) отрицательная реакция( особ. на поддразнивание) - to get /to have, to take/ a * out of smb. раздразнить кого-л.;
    вывести кого-л. из себя восходить - what time does the sun *? в котором часу восходит солнце? - the moon rose red взошла красная луна вставать (на ноги) ;
    подниматься - to * from one's knees подняться с колен - to * in applause аплодировать стоя;
    устраивать овацию - to * from the table встать из-за стола;
    закончить еду - too weak to * слишком слабый, чтобы встать - all rose to receive him все встали, чтобы приветствовать его вставать (после сна) - to * early вставать рано - to * with the sun вставать с восходом /с петухами/ - * and shine! подъем! (парламентское) вставать с места( об ораторе, просящем слова) ;
    взять слово (тж. to * to speak) - I * (to speak) in opposition to the amendment я (хочу высказаться) против этой поправки воскресать, оживать;
    возрождаться - to * like a phoenix from its ashes восстать как феникс из пепла - many famous cities rose from the ashes of war были восстановлены многие прославленные города, испепеленные войной (религия) воскресать из мертвых - Christ is *n! Христос воскрес! подниматься - the plane rose in the air самолет поднялся в воздух - the horse rose on its hind legs лошадь встала на дыбы - his hand rose in salute он поднял руку в знак приветствия - the river /the flood/ had risen two feet река поднялась на два фута - the mercury is rising барометр поднимается - the mist is rising туман поднимается /рассеивается/ - the hair rose on his head у него волосы встали дыбом повышаться (о местности и т. п.) - the road began rising gradually дорога начала постепенно подниматься подходить, подниматься (о тесте) возрастать, увеличиваться, усиливаться - prices * цены растут - sugar has risen a penny a pound сахар подорожал на пенни за фунт - interest *s with each act of the play с каждым актом интерес к пьесе возрастает - the wind *s ветер усиливается /крепчает/ - his spirits rose у него поднялось /улучшилось/ настроение - her colour rose она покраснела - his voice rose to a shriek голос его сорвался на крик возвышаться;
    быть выше (чего-л.) - to * above prejudices быть выше предрассудков - the tree *s 20 feet дерево достигает высоты в 20 футов - a building rose before them перед ними возвышалось здание - a hill *s behind the house позади дома возвышается холм подниматься (на поверхность) - bubbles rose from the bottom of the lake со дна озера поднимались пузырьки - unpleasant aspects of this case are now rising to the surface уже начинают всплывать неприглядные стороны этого дела продвигаться вверх( по общественной лестнице) ;
    приобретать вес, влияние - to * in the world преуспевать - to * to greatness стать великим человеком /знаменитостью/ - to * in smb.'s estimation /opinion/ вырасти в чьих-л. глазах - he rose to international fame almost overnight он внезапно приобрел мировую известность - a man likely to * человек с будущим;
    человек, который далеко пойдет - to * from the ranks выйти из рядовых (об офицере) ;
    пройти путь от рядового до офицера быть в состоянии справиться( с чем-л.) - to * to the occasion оказаться на высоте положения - to * to an emergency справиться с трудностью, быть на высоте положения - to * to a challenge принять вызов восставать - to * in arms восставать с оружием в руках - to * against oppression восставать против угнетения - my whole soul *s against it все мое существо восстает против этого брать начало, начинаться, происходить - the river *s from a spring река берет свое начало из родника - the quarrel rose from a mere trifle ссора началась из-за пустяка - the difficulty *s from misapprehension трудность возникает из-за непонимания возникать, появляться - a picture *s before the mind в воображении возникает картина прекращать работу, закрываться (о сессии парламента, о съезде, конференции) приманить - he did not * a fish all day за весь день у него ни одна рыбка не клюнула возникать, рождаться - a feud rose разгорелась вражда - a rumour rose родился слух (разговорное) растить, выращивать, воспитывать реагировать( на замечание, обстановку) ;
    поддаваться( на провокацию и т. п.) > to * to the bait /to the fly/ попасться на удочку, клюнуть на что-л.;
    реагировать на вызов /замечание/ > to * to it поддаться на провокацию > his gorge /stomach/ is rising он чувствует отвращение, ему претит (что-л.) backdated pay ~ повышение зарплаты задним числом ~ повышение, возвышение, подъем, поднятие;
    увеличение;
    to be on the rise подниматься (о ценах и т. п.) ;
    перен. идти в гору;
    the rise to power приход к власти get a ~ продвигаться по службе ~ возрастать, усиливаться;
    the wind rises ветер усиливается;
    her colour rose она покраснела his gorge (или stomach) ~s он чувствует отвращение;
    ему претит;
    to rise in applause встречать овацией interest rate ~ повышение ставки процента ~ возвышенность, холм;
    to look from the rise смотреть с горы ~ закрываться, прекращать работу (о съезде, сессии и т. п.) ;
    Parliament will rise next week сессия парламента закрывается на будущей неделе pay ~ рост заработной платы price ~ повышение курса ценных бумаг price ~ повышение цены retroactive pay ~ увеличение заработной платы, имеющее обратную силу rise быть в состоянии справиться (to - с чем-л.) to ~ (above smth.) перен. быть выше (чего-л.) ;
    to rise above the prejudices быть выше предрассудков to ~ (above smth.) возвышаться (над чем-л.) ~ возвышаться ~ возвышенность, холм;
    to look from the rise смотреть с горы ~ возникновение ~ возрастать, усиливаться;
    the wind rises ветер усиливается;
    her colour rose она покраснела ~ воскресать (из мертвых) ;
    to rise to the bait (или to the fly) попасться на удочку;
    to rise to it ответить на вызывающее замечание ~ восставать;
    to rise in arms восставать с оружием в руках ~ восход (солнца, луны) ~ вставать, всходить, восходить;
    the sun rises солнце всходит ~ выход на поверхность ~ горн., геол. восстающая выработка;
    восстание (пласта) ~ закрываться, прекращать работу (о съезде, сессии и т. п.) ;
    Parliament will rise next week сессия парламента закрывается на будущей неделе ~ исток (реки) ~ клев ~ начало ~ повышаться ~ повышение, возвышение, подъем, поднятие;
    увеличение;
    to be on the rise подниматься (о ценах и т. п.) ;
    перен. идти в гору;
    the rise to power приход к власти ~ повышение ~ повышение цен ~ подниматься, подходить (о тесте) ~ подниматься (о ценах, уровне и т. п.) ;
    увеличиваться ~ (rose;
    risen) подниматься;
    вставать ~ подниматься ~ подниматься на поверхность ~ подъем, повышение ~ подъем ~ прибавка (к жалованью) ~ прибавка (к зарплате) ~ прибавка к заработной плате ~ приобретать вес, влияние (в обществе) ~ продвигаться по службе ~ продвижение ~ происходить, начинаться (in, from) ;
    the river rises in the hills река берет свое начало в горах ~ происхождение, начало;
    to take its rise (in smth.) брать начало (в чем-л.) ~ происхождение ~ рост (влияния) ;
    приобретение веса (в обществе) ;
    улучшение (положения) ~ лес. сбег (ствола, бревна) ;
    to take (или to get) a rise out (of smb.) раздразнить (кого-л.) ;
    вывести (кого-л.) из себя ~ тех., стр. стрела (арки, провеса, подъема) ;
    вынос, провес (провода) ~ увеличение, повышение цен ~ увеличение ~ увеличиваться ~ улучшение положения to ~ (above smth.) перен. быть выше (чего-л.) ;
    to rise above the prejudices быть выше предрассудков his gorge (или stomach) ~s он чувствует отвращение;
    ему претит;
    to rise in applause встречать овацией ~ восставать;
    to rise in arms восставать с оружием в руках ~ in exchange rate повышение валютного курса ~ in exchange rate повышение обменного курса ~ in interest rate повышение нормы процента ~ in interest rate повышение процентной ставки ~ in prices повышение курсов ценных бумаг ~ in prices повышение цен ~ in value of land повышение стоимости земли ~ of income повышение дохода ~ воскресать (из мертвых) ;
    to rise to the bait (или to the fly) попасться на удочку;
    to rise to it ответить на вызывающее замечание ~ повышение, возвышение, подъем, поднятие;
    увеличение;
    to be on the rise подниматься (о ценах и т. п.) ;
    перен. идти в гору;
    the rise to power приход к власти ~ воскресать (из мертвых) ;
    to rise to the bait (или to the fly) попасться на удочку;
    to rise to it ответить на вызывающее замечание ~ происходить, начинаться (in, from) ;
    the river rises in the hills река берет свое начало в горах steady ~ устойчивый рост ~ вставать, всходить, восходить;
    the sun rises солнце всходит ~ лес. сбег (ствола, бревна) ;
    to take (или to get) a rise out (of smb.) раздразнить (кого-л.) ;
    вывести (кого-л.) из себя ~ происхождение, начало;
    to take its rise (in smth.) брать начало (в чем-л.) ~ возрастать, усиливаться;
    the wind rises ветер усиливается;
    her colour rose она покраснела

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > rise

  • 20 spirit

    1. noun
    1) in pl. (distilled liquor) Spirituosen Pl.
    2) (mental attitude) Geisteshaltung, die

    in the right/wrong spirit — mit der richtigen/falschen Einstellung

    enter into the spirit of something — innerlich bei einer Sache [beteiligt] sein od. dabei sein

    3) (courage) Mut, der
    4) (vital principle, soul, inner qualities) Geist, der

    in spirit — innerlich; im Geiste

    be with somebody in spirit — in Gedanken od. im Geist[e] bei jemandem sein

    5) (real meaning) Geist, der; Sinn, der
    6) (mental tendency) Geist, der; (mood) Stimmung, die

    the spirit of the age or times — der Zeitgeist

    7)

    high spirits — gehobene Stimmung; gute Laune

    in poor or low spirits — niedergedrückt

    8) (liquid obtained by distillation) Spiritus, der; (purified alcohol) reiner Alkohol
    2. transitive verb

    spirit away, spirit off — verschwinden lassen

    * * *
    ['spirit]
    1) (a principle or emotion which makes someone act: The spirit of kindness seems to be lacking in the world nowadays.) der Geist
    2) (a person's mind, will, personality etc thought of as distinct from the body, or as remaining alive eg as a ghost when the body dies: Our great leader may be dead, but his spirit still lives on; ( also adjective) the spirit world; Evil spirits have taken possession of him.) der Geist
    3) (liveliness; courage: He acted with spirit.) der Elan
    •
    - academic.ru/69592/spirited">spirited
    - spiritedly
    - spirits
    - spiritual
    - spiritually
    - spirit level
    * * *
    spir·it
    [ˈspɪrɪt]
    I. n
    1. (sb's soul) Geist m
    his \spirit will be with us always sein Geist wird uns immer begleiten
    to be with sb in \spirit im Geiste bei jdm sein
    2. (ghost) Geist m, Gespenst nt
    evil \spirit böser Geist
    3. (the Holy Spirit)
    ▪ the S\spirit der Heilige Geist
    4. no pl (mood) Stimmung f
    that's the \spirit das ist die richtige Einstellung
    we acted in a \spirit of co-operation wir handelten im Geiste der Zusammenarbeit
    the \spirit of the age der Zeitgeist
    the \spirit of brotherhood/confidence/forgiveness der Geist der Brüderlichkeit/des Vertrauens/der Vergebung
    the \spirit of Christmas die weihnachtliche Stimmung
    fighting \spirit Kampfgeist m
    party \spirit Partystimmung f
    team \spirit Teamgeist m
    to enter [or get into] the \spirit of sth Gefallen an etw dat finden
    try to get into the \spirit of things! versuch dich in die Sachen hineinzuversetzen!
    ▪ \spirits pl Gemütsverfassung f kein pl
    her \spirits rose as she read the letter sie bekam neuen Mut, als sie den Brief las
    keep your \spirits up lass den Mut nicht sinken
    to be in high/low \spirits in gehobener/gedrückter Stimmung sein
    to be out of \spirits schlecht gelaunt sein
    to dash sb's \spirits auf jds Stimmung drücken
    to lift sb's \spirits jds Stimmung heben
    6. (person) Seele f
    brave/generous \spirit mutige/gute Seele
    the moving \spirit of sth die treibende Kraft einer S. gen
    7. no pl (character) Seele f
    to have a broken \spirit seelisch gebrochen sein
    to be troubled in \spirit etw auf der Seele lasten haben
    to be young in \spirit geistig jung geblieben sein
    8. no pl (vitality) Temperament nt; of a horse Feuer nt
    to perform/sing with \spirit mit Inbrunst spielen/singen
    with \spirit voller Enthusiasmus; horse feurig
    9. no pl (intent) Sinn m
    you did not take my comment in the \spirit in which it was meant du hast meine Bemerkung nicht so aufgenommen, wie sie gemeint war
    the \spirit of the law der Geist [o Sinn] des Gesetzes
    10. (whisky, rum, etc.)
    ▪ \spirits pl Spirituosen pl
    11. (alcoholic solution) Spiritus m
    \spirits of turpentine Terpentinöl nt
    12. CHEM Spiritus m
    \spirit of ammonia Ammoniumhydroxid nt, Salmiakgeist m
    \spirit of melissa Melissengeist m
    13.
    ▶ the \spirit is willing but the flesh is weak ( saying) der Geist ist willig, aber das Fleisch ist schwach prov
    II. n modifier (world) Geister-
    III. vt
    ▪ to \spirit sb/sth away [or off] jdn/etw verschwinden lassen [o wegzaubern]
    * * *
    ['spIrɪt]
    1. n
    1) (= soul) Geist m

    the spirit is willing (but the flesh is weak) — der Geist ist willig(, aber das Fleisch ist schwach)

    2) (= supernatural being, ghost) Geist m
    3) (= leading person of age, movement etc) Geist m; (of party, enterprise) Kopf m
    4) no pl (= courage) Mut m, Schneid m; (= vitality, enthusiasm) Elan m, Schwung m

    to break sb's spirit —

    5) (= mental attitude of country, group of people, doctrine, reform etc) Geist m; (= mood) Stimmung f

    a spirit of optimism/rebellion — eine optimistische/rebellische Stimmung

    to do sth in a spirit of optimism/humility — etw voll Optimismus/voller Demut tun

    in a spirit of forgiveness/revenge — aus einer vergebenden/rachsüchtigen Stimmung heraus

    he has the right spirit — er hat die richtige Einstellung

    to enter into the spirit of sth —

    that's the spirit! (inf) — so ists recht! (inf)

    6) no pl (= intention) Geist m

    the spirit of the law — der Geist or Sinn des Gesetzes

    to take sth in the right/wrong spirit — etw richtig/falsch auffassen

    to take sth in the spirit in which it was intended —

    7) pl (= state of mind) Stimmung f, Laune f; (= courage) Mut m

    to be in good/low spirits — guter/schlechter Laune sein

    8) pl (= alcohol) Branntwein m, Spirituosen pl, geistige Getränke pl
    9) (CHEM) Spiritus m
    2. vt

    to spirit sb/sth away or off — jdn/etw verschwinden lassen or wegzaubern

    to spirit sb out of a room etc — jdn aus einem Zimmer etc wegzaubern

    * * *
    spirit [ˈspırıt]
    A s
    1. allg Geist m:
    the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak der Geist ist willig, aber das Fleisch ist schwach
    2. Geist m, Lebenshauch m
    3. Geist m:
    a) Seele f (eines Toten)
    b) Gespenst n
    4. Spirit (göttlicher) Geist
    5. Geist m, (innere) Vorstellung:
    6. (das) Geistige, Geist m:
    the world of the spirit die geistige Welt
    7. Geist m:
    a) Gesinnung f, (Gemein- etc) Sinn m:
    spirit of the party Parteigeist
    b) Charakter m: → contradiction 1
    c) Sinn m:
    that’s the spirit! umg so ist’s recht!; → enter into 4
    8. meist pl Gemütsverfassung f, Stimmung f:
    a) Hochstimmung,
    b) Ausgelassenheit f;
    in high (low) spirits in gehobener (gedrückter) Stimmung;
    keep up one’s spirits sich bei Laune halten;
    as ( oder if, when) the spirit moves ( oder takes) one wenn einem danach zumute ist
    9. fig Feuer n, Schwung m, Elan m, Mut m, pl auch Lebensgeister pl:
    full of spirits voll Feuer, voller Schwung;
    when(ever) the spirit moves me wenn es mich überkommt, wenn ich Lust dazu verspüre; → break1 B 8
    10. (Mann m von) Geist m, Kopf m
    11. fig Seele f, treibende Kraft (eines Unternehmens etc)
    12. the spirit of the age ( oder times) der Zeitgeist
    13. CHEM
    a) Spiritus m:
    spirit varnish Spirituslack m
    b) Destillat n, Geist m, Spiritus m:
    spirit of nitrous ether PHARM Hoffmannstropfen pl;
    spirit(s pl) of hartshorn Hirschhorn-, Salmiakgeist;
    spirits pl of wine Weingeist; → turpentine 2
    14. pl Spirituosen pl, stark alkoholische Getränke pl
    15. auch pl CHEM US Alkohol m
    16. Färberei: ( besonders Zinn)Beize f
    B v/t
    1. oft spirit up aufmuntern
    2. oft spirit off wegzaubern, verschwinden lassen
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) in pl. (distilled liquor) Spirituosen Pl.
    2) (mental attitude) Geisteshaltung, die

    in the right/wrong spirit — mit der richtigen/falschen Einstellung

    take something in the spirit in which it is meant — etwas so auffassen, wie es gemeint ist

    enter into the spirit of something — innerlich bei einer Sache [beteiligt] sein od. dabei sein

    3) (courage) Mut, der
    4) (vital principle, soul, inner qualities) Geist, der

    in spirit — innerlich; im Geiste

    be with somebody in spirit — in Gedanken od. im Geist[e] bei jemandem sein

    5) (real meaning) Geist, der; Sinn, der
    6) (mental tendency) Geist, der; (mood) Stimmung, die

    the spirit of the age or times — der Zeitgeist

    7)

    high spirits — gehobene Stimmung; gute Laune

    in poor or low spirits — niedergedrückt

    8) (liquid obtained by distillation) Spiritus, der; (purified alcohol) reiner Alkohol
    2. transitive verb

    spirit away, spirit off — verschwinden lassen

    * * *
    n.
    Elan nur sing. m.
    Feuer -- n.
    Geist -er m.
    Gespenst -er n.
    Seele -n f.
    Spiritus m.
    Sprit nur sing. m.

    English-german dictionary > spirit

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